Many people got worried about the efforts of the novel on readers who were taken away from their real surroundings into an imaginary world where anything could happen.
WOMEN AND THE NOVEL–
Some of them wrote in newspapers and magazines, advising people to stay away from the immoral influence of novels. Women and children were often singled out for such advice: they were seen as easily corruptible.
Some parents kept novels in the lofts of their houses, out of children's reach. Young people often read them in secret. This passion was not limited only to the youth.
Older women-some of whom could not read-listened with fascinated attention to popular Tamil novels read out to them by their grandchildren-a nice reversal of the familiar grandma's tales!
But women did not remain mere readers of stories written by men; soon they also began to write novels. In some languages, the early creations of women were poems, essays or autobiographical pieces.
In the early decades of the twentieth century, women in south India also began writing novels and short stories.
A reason for the popularity of novels among women was that it allowed for a new conception of womanhood. Stories of love-which was a staple theme of many novels-showed women who could choose or refuse their partners and relationships.
It showed women who could to some extent control their lives. Some women author also wrote about women who changed the world of both men and women.
Rokeya Hossein(1880-1932) was a reformer who, after she was widowed, started a girl's school in Calcutta.
She wrote a satiric fantasy in English called Sultana's Dream(1905) which shows a topsyturvy world in which women take the place of men.
Her novel Padmarag also showed the need for women to reform their condition by their actions. It is not surprising that many men were suspicious of women writing novels or reading them.
This suspicion cut across communities. Hannah Mullens, a Christian missionary and the author of Karuna o phulmonior Bibaran(1852), reputedly the first novel in Bengali, tells her readers that she wrote in secret. In the twentieth century, Sailabala Ghosh Jaya, a popular novelist, could only write because her husband protected her.
As we have seen in the case of the south, women and girls were often discouraged from reading novels.
CASTE PRACTICES,'LOWER–CASTES' AND MINORITIES
As you have seen, Indulekha was a love story. But it was also about an issue that was hotly debated at the time when the novel was written. This concerned the marriage practices of upper-caste Hindus in Kerala, especially the Nambuthiri Brahmins and the Nayars.
Nambuthiris were also major landlords in Kerala at that time, and a large section of the Nayars were their tenants.
In late-nineteenth-century Kerala, a younger generation of English-educated Nayar men who had acquired property and wealth on their own began arguing strongly against Nambuthiri alliances with Nayar women.
They wanted new laws regarding marriage and property.
The story of indulekha is interesting in light of these debates. Suri Nambuthiri, the foolish landlord who comes to marry indulekha, is the focus of much satire in the novel.
The intelligent heroine rejects him and chooses Madhavan, the educated and handsome Nayar as her husband, and the young couple moved to madras, where Madhavan joins the civil services.
Suri Nambuthiri, desperate to find a partner for himself, finally marries a poorer relation from the same family and goes away pretending that he has married Indulekha!
Chandu Menon clearly wanted his readers to appreciate the new values of his hero and heroine and criticise the ignorance and immorality of Suri Namboothiri Novels like Indirabai and Indulekha were written by members of the upper castes and were primarily about upper-caste characters. But not all novels were of this kind.
Potheri Kunjambu, a lower-caste' writer from north Kerala, wrote a novel called Saraswativijiyam in 1892, mounting a strong attack on caste oppression.
This novel shows a young man from an 'untouchable' caste leaving his village to escape the cruelty of his Brahmin landlord. He converts to Christianity, obtains modern education, and returns as the judge in the local court. Meanwhile, the villagers, thinking that the landlord's men had killed him, file a case.
At the conclusion of the trial, the judge reveals his true identity, and the Nambuthiri repents and reforms his ways. Saraswativijayam stresses the importance of education for the upliftment of the lower castes.
From the 1920s, in Bengal too a new kind of novel emerged that depicted the lives of peasants and low castes.
Advaita Malla Burman's(1914-51) Titash Ekti Nadir Naam(1956) is an epic about the Mallas, a community of fisherfolk who live off fishing in the river Titash. The novel is about three generations of the Mallas, about their recurring tragedies and the story of Ananta, a child born of parents who were tragically separated after their wedding night.
Ananta leaves the community life of the Mallas in great detail, their Holi and Kali Puja festivals, boat races, Bhatia songs, their relationships of friendship and animosity with the peasants and the oppression of the upper castes.
Slowly the community breaks up and the Mallas start fighting amongst themselves as new cultural influences from the city start penetrating their lives. The life of the community and that of the river is intimately tied. Their end comes together: as the river dries up, the community dies too.
While novelists before Burman had featured'low' castes as their protagonists, Titash is special because the author is himself from a 'low-caste', fisherfolk community.
Over time, the medium of the novel made room for the experiences of communities that had not received much space in the literary scene earlier.
Vaikkom Muhammad Basheer(1980-94), for example, was one of the early Muslim.writers to gain wide renown as a novelist in Malayalam.
Basheer had little formal education. Most of his works were based on his own rich personal experience rather than on books from the past.
When he was in class five at school, Basheer left home to take part in Salt Satyagraha. Later he spent years wandering in different parts of India and travelling even to Arabia, working in a ship, living with Sufis and Hindu sanyasis, and training as a wrestler.
Basheer"s short novels and stories were written in the ordinary language of conversation. With wonderful humour, Basheer's novels spoke about details from the everyday life of Muslim households.
He also brought into Malayalam writing themes which were considered very unusual at that time-poverty, insanity and life in prisons.
WOMEN AND THE NOVEL–
Some of them wrote in newspapers and magazines, advising people to stay away from the immoral influence of novels. Women and children were often singled out for such advice: they were seen as easily corruptible.
Some parents kept novels in the lofts of their houses, out of children's reach. Young people often read them in secret. This passion was not limited only to the youth.
Older women-some of whom could not read-listened with fascinated attention to popular Tamil novels read out to them by their grandchildren-a nice reversal of the familiar grandma's tales!
But women did not remain mere readers of stories written by men; soon they also began to write novels. In some languages, the early creations of women were poems, essays or autobiographical pieces.
In the early decades of the twentieth century, women in south India also began writing novels and short stories.
A reason for the popularity of novels among women was that it allowed for a new conception of womanhood. Stories of love-which was a staple theme of many novels-showed women who could choose or refuse their partners and relationships.
It showed women who could to some extent control their lives. Some women author also wrote about women who changed the world of both men and women.
Rokeya Hossein(1880-1932) was a reformer who, after she was widowed, started a girl's school in Calcutta.
She wrote a satiric fantasy in English called Sultana's Dream(1905) which shows a topsyturvy world in which women take the place of men.
Her novel Padmarag also showed the need for women to reform their condition by their actions. It is not surprising that many men were suspicious of women writing novels or reading them.
This suspicion cut across communities. Hannah Mullens, a Christian missionary and the author of Karuna o phulmonior Bibaran(1852), reputedly the first novel in Bengali, tells her readers that she wrote in secret. In the twentieth century, Sailabala Ghosh Jaya, a popular novelist, could only write because her husband protected her.
As we have seen in the case of the south, women and girls were often discouraged from reading novels.
CASTE PRACTICES,'LOWER–CASTES' AND MINORITIES
As you have seen, Indulekha was a love story. But it was also about an issue that was hotly debated at the time when the novel was written. This concerned the marriage practices of upper-caste Hindus in Kerala, especially the Nambuthiri Brahmins and the Nayars.
Nambuthiris were also major landlords in Kerala at that time, and a large section of the Nayars were their tenants.
In late-nineteenth-century Kerala, a younger generation of English-educated Nayar men who had acquired property and wealth on their own began arguing strongly against Nambuthiri alliances with Nayar women.
They wanted new laws regarding marriage and property.
The story of indulekha is interesting in light of these debates. Suri Nambuthiri, the foolish landlord who comes to marry indulekha, is the focus of much satire in the novel.
The intelligent heroine rejects him and chooses Madhavan, the educated and handsome Nayar as her husband, and the young couple moved to madras, where Madhavan joins the civil services.
Suri Nambuthiri, desperate to find a partner for himself, finally marries a poorer relation from the same family and goes away pretending that he has married Indulekha!
Chandu Menon clearly wanted his readers to appreciate the new values of his hero and heroine and criticise the ignorance and immorality of Suri Namboothiri Novels like Indirabai and Indulekha were written by members of the upper castes and were primarily about upper-caste characters. But not all novels were of this kind.
Potheri Kunjambu, a lower-caste' writer from north Kerala, wrote a novel called Saraswativijiyam in 1892, mounting a strong attack on caste oppression.
This novel shows a young man from an 'untouchable' caste leaving his village to escape the cruelty of his Brahmin landlord. He converts to Christianity, obtains modern education, and returns as the judge in the local court. Meanwhile, the villagers, thinking that the landlord's men had killed him, file a case.
At the conclusion of the trial, the judge reveals his true identity, and the Nambuthiri repents and reforms his ways. Saraswativijayam stresses the importance of education for the upliftment of the lower castes.
From the 1920s, in Bengal too a new kind of novel emerged that depicted the lives of peasants and low castes.
Advaita Malla Burman's(1914-51) Titash Ekti Nadir Naam(1956) is an epic about the Mallas, a community of fisherfolk who live off fishing in the river Titash. The novel is about three generations of the Mallas, about their recurring tragedies and the story of Ananta, a child born of parents who were tragically separated after their wedding night.
Ananta leaves the community life of the Mallas in great detail, their Holi and Kali Puja festivals, boat races, Bhatia songs, their relationships of friendship and animosity with the peasants and the oppression of the upper castes.
Slowly the community breaks up and the Mallas start fighting amongst themselves as new cultural influences from the city start penetrating their lives. The life of the community and that of the river is intimately tied. Their end comes together: as the river dries up, the community dies too.
While novelists before Burman had featured'low' castes as their protagonists, Titash is special because the author is himself from a 'low-caste', fisherfolk community.
Over time, the medium of the novel made room for the experiences of communities that had not received much space in the literary scene earlier.
Vaikkom Muhammad Basheer(1980-94), for example, was one of the early Muslim.writers to gain wide renown as a novelist in Malayalam.
Basheer had little formal education. Most of his works were based on his own rich personal experience rather than on books from the past.
When he was in class five at school, Basheer left home to take part in Salt Satyagraha. Later he spent years wandering in different parts of India and travelling even to Arabia, working in a ship, living with Sufis and Hindu sanyasis, and training as a wrestler.
Basheer"s short novels and stories were written in the ordinary language of conversation. With wonderful humour, Basheer's novels spoke about details from the everyday life of Muslim households.
He also brought into Malayalam writing themes which were considered very unusual at that time-poverty, insanity and life in prisons.
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